Free Practice Questions for Admission Tests GMAT Exam

Consider a mirage on a hot toad: when light rays hit the hot air just above the surface, they bend. Although light moves through a vacuum at a certain constant speed, it moves more slowly through any transparent medium, such as water or gas. Light travels faster in the thin air near the road than it does in the colder, denser air above, and the difference in speed makes it shift direction as it crosses the boundary between the two. Rays once headed downwards from the sky are redirected to your eye, hiding part of the road with a shimmering image.

A research team has constructed an apparatus to cloak an object from electromagnetic radiation (EMR)—in this case, microwaves—making the object 'invisible" to microwave-based detection devices, somewhat as a mirage on a hot road makes the road invisible. The apparatus bends incoming microwaves around the object, using a class of recently created metamaterials—materials that gain certain desired properties directly from their engineered structures rather than from their composition. These metamaterials possess the ability, not found in nature, to bend microwaves at extreme angles. The metamaterial in this case—thin, rigid sheets of fiberglass insulator stamped with conducting loops, coils, and tiny rectangles—was designed to control the movement of incoming EMR.

United States Geological Survey scientists have found that a cooling in Pacific Ocean temperatures ed to increases in ecologically threatening phytoplankton blooms m San Francisco Bay, California. The declining temperatures took place off the coast of California between 1999 and 2004. The occurrence of these blooms is surprising because such blooms are normally associated with increases n the amount of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, entering estuaries from such sources as wastewater treatment plants and agricultural fields. In this case, the bay's phytoplankton blooms occurred during a period of decreasing nutrient concentration and inputs.

The scientists discovered the effects of the cold Pacific temperatures by using biological and water-quality data collected over twenty-five years. The colder temperatures caused changes in the types, abundance, and migration patterns of marine life into the San Francisco Bay from coastal ocean waters. For example, marine life, such as fish, shrimp, and crabs, migrated to the warmer waters thot are found in the bay.

The migrations increased the numbers of predators such as bay shrimp and Dungeness crabs that eat filter feeders, such as clams. Clams can filter large quantities of phytoplankton from the bay's water, which can prevent phytopldnklon blooms. With the increase in predators, there wds d corresponding

decrease In clam populations and an increase in phytoplarkton.

Organizations that produce similar goods tend to concentrate in the same geographic area (geographic concentration of production). Economic explanations of such industrial agglomeration explicitly emphasize better performance, and implicitly emphasize lower failure rates, as the key processes contributing to this geographic concentration. Sometimes Industries benefit economically from situating themselves in particular locations that offer intrinsic advantages such as access to scarce raw materials or proximity to consumers. In other cases, regardless of the particular location, the colocation of structurally equivalent organizations—those that operate in the same markets—may itself yield advantages such as common labor markets and knowledge spillovers.

Sorenson and Audia point out that these explanations Ignore the fact that structurally equivalent organizations also compete with one another for vital resources, and colocation would be expected to increase such competition. Organizational ecology studies support this expectation by showing that organizations apparently compete more intensely within local population boundaries.

Sorenson and Audia propose instead that what maintains geographic concentration is entrepreneurial opportunity, which leads to higher founding rates. Dense local concentrations of structurally equivalent organizations increase the pool of potential entrepreneurs in a region. Beginning entrepreneurs need exposure to existing organizations in the industry to acquire knowledge of the business, ties to scarce resources, and self-confidence. The existing geographic concentration of production constrains access to these resources, so that new founding’s tend to reinforce geographic concentration.

Many policymakers adopt a macro approach to environmental problems in emerging markets (countries experiencing rapid economic growth): discussing ambitious regulations in global forums and looking to giant multinational companies and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) for insight. But examining what successful companies in these countries are already doing to make growth more environmentally sustainable may make more sense.

One study identifies several such firms that are turning eco-consciousness into a source of competitive advantage. The most salient quality of these highly profitable companies Is that they turn limitations (of resources, labor, and Infrastructure) into opportunities. An Indian cement company suffering water shortages developed the world's most water-efficient cement-making method, using air-cooling rather than water cooling. A Philippines utility reduced its water loss through wastage and illegal tapping from 63 percent (1997) to 12 percent (2010) by making water more affordable for lower-Income consumers. A Chinese company makes air conditioners powered with buildings' waste heat, reducing strain on the electric grid.

The companies also seek to shape their business environment to support sustainable objectives. Some lobby regulators: a Brazilian organic-sugar producer works with Brazil's government to establish an organic certification system. Some form partnerships: Kenya's Equity Bank allies with international groups to reduce its risks when lending to smallholders or single-family farms; a Brazilian cosmetics company works with suppliers to produce sustainable packaging. Some firms also work to reach and educate lower-income consumers, sacrificing short-term profits to create future markets: a Chilean forestry company organizes local carpenters into networks and connects them to low-income customers.

One could quibble with the study. Switzerland's Phil Rosenzweig has argued that management writers are prone to a halo effect: they treat a company's temporary success as proof that It has discovered some eternal principle of good management. That some successful companies have embraced environmental sustainability does not prove that It makes companies successful. Some firms, having prospered, can afford splurging on green Initiatives; some pursue eco-Initiatives for public relations purposes.

Nonetheless, the study Is thought-provoking. Critics argue that environmentalism Is a rich-world luxury, but such fears are overblown. When natural resources are scarce and consumers are cash-strapped, sustainability can be a lucrative business strategy